جاره سه ركردن به ئازل

Death from Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) in Turkey

حمى القرم - الكونغو القرمزيه في تركيا

Location of recent CCHF in Turkey

CCHF In Iran 2000-2010 (738 Cases)

CCHF virus is endemic in many countries in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Outbreaks have recently been recorded in Russia, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan, Mauritania, Kosovo, Albania, Pakistan and South Africa

The Turkish Press has reported that on April 16^th a 56 year old man from Kavak, in the Boyabat district of the Sinop Province near the Black Sea, had died from CCHF. He had removed ticks from his cow(s) on April 4^th and the following day started to vomit and felt weak. He was treated in a hospital in Kastamonou  and when CCHF was suspected he was sent to a hospital in Istanbul where efforts to save him failed.

The Tick which Cary the Virus
القراد الناقل لفيروس المرض

CCHF is caused by a virus of the genus Nairovirus and is spread by ticks of the genus Hyalomma and are found on cattle, sheep and goats in throughout the Middle East . Livestock show no outward signs of infection but humans develop dizziness, muscular pain, stiffness and bleeding. Mortality rates in humans lies between 10 to 40%. People are unaware that they have been bitten by an infected tick until the onset of symptoms. Turkey confirmed a case of CCHF in 2002 and the number of cases has increased steadily since then and together with Iran, Russia and Uzbekistan Turkey reports more than 50 cases a year. This may be due to good surveillance procedures and proper diagnostics in these countries.

Heamorrhagic  Fever in Man

With CCHF reported in our neighbouring countries( Iran & Turkey) we cannot be complacent and should be extremely vigilant for symptoms of this disease in people in contact with livestock. Where the livestock is we can be sure that ticks will be too and any human coming into contact with animals carrying ticks is at risk. This includes farmers, livestock owners, slaughtermen, traders and veterinarians and we are placed at greater risk because of the ever increased  illegal movement of animals across our borders.

We in Iraq need, stringent import and export control, efficient surveillance procedures and proper diagnostic facilities to fight zoonotic diseases.

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome MERS..داء كرونا الخطير في الخليج

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is caused by the coronavirus MERS-CoV and is the causative agent of a serious respiratory illness that since September 2012 has infected 250 people globally and in 93 of the cases death has resulted. While some cases were reported from Europe all the patients had recently been in the Gulf countries. Research has revealed that MERS-CoV is widespread in camels throughout Saudi Arabia and that the virus, or a closely related form of it, has been present in camels in KSA for the last twenty years. Infection of camels is determined by nasal and rectal swabs or by antibodies in the blood and examination of archived samples has now shown the presence of MERS-CoV, or its related form, in camels from Ethiopia, Nigeria and Tunisia.

Adult camels are more likely to carry antibodies to the virus while young animals carry the live virus. The first known case in humans was a Saudi Arabian man who had four pet camels and spread of the virus to humans is thought to be the result of poor hygiene. Some individuals had had contact with confirmed cases of MERS while in some cases camel milk was implicated but there are cases of human infection where the patient has not been in contact with camels. More that 80% of adult camels in KSA showed antibodies to the virus while 90% aged 2 or under were infected indicating that the camel can be a reservoir host for the virus.

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In the last week 50 cases of MERS have been confirmed in Saudi Arabia and there have been 7 deaths. Between 16^th and 21^st of April 9 cases were reported in the United Arab Emirates. The KSA government is treating the situation seriously and the Minister for Health resigned on Monday. The government has issued recommendations to all those considering pilgrimage to Mecca and advising that the elderly, those under 15 years or those with health conditions do not go. In addition farms producing camel milk in the vicinity of Mecca and Medina have been relocated. Increasing concern in the country has led to a suggestion in the media that ‘if there is something wrong with our camels then we should kill them.

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As the evidence that the dromedary camel can form a reservoir host for the MERS virus increases the possibility of these animals rapidly losing their value and an increased likelihood that camel meat is illegally moved across international boundaries. In other words we need to be aware of the increased risks we face from the Illegal  Transboundry Animal Trade( ITAT)

It has to be remembered that when drought and outbreaks of disease occur the value of livestock rapidly drops and they are move to wherever there is a market. 

فلتنحر الإبل إن كانت الناقل-كورونا

عندما تظهر بوادر وباء، من حق الناس أن تعرف ما يحدث بشفافية كاملة، فالمسألة حياة أو موت، لا تفيد فيها التطمينات، ولا التسويف، وبالتأكيد يكون التجاهل أسوأ أسلوب لأنه يثير الشائعات، وينشر الخوف، فالغضب. وفوق هذا، فإن المسؤولية الرسمية حول سلامة الناس وقائيا وعلاجيا كاملة، بل إن الحكومة مسؤولة أمام العالم، حتى لا ينتشر ولا ينتقل إلى خارج حدودها، وليست مسؤوليتها فقط مواطنيها، فالقضية بالغة الخطورة على أكثر من مستوى.

«كورونا»، مرض وبائي سمعنا به فقط قبل أقل من عامين، ظننا في البداية أنه «سارس» الصيني، ثم قيل إنه نسخة أكثر خطورة ينتقل بسهولة عن طريق التنفس، حتى سمي «متلازمة التنفس». وما زاد الخوف في الآونة الأخيرة هو الارتفاع المفاجئ في حالات الإصابة به، التي بلغت في السعودية مائتين وأربعا وأربعين إصابة، توفي 18 منهم.

كما أشعل القلق تضاربُ الأقوال حول أن الإبل هي المصدر الناقل له. وكان التعجل في نفي التهمة من بعض الجهات يوازي خطأ ترويجها، بحجة أنه لا يوجد دليل علمي، وهو لا يكفي لطمأنة الناس. هل تتحمل الجهات الصحية غدا المسؤولية إن ثبت أن الإبل هي الناقل، وما قيمة هذه المسؤولية بعد أن يكون انتشار الوباء قد زاد ومات المزيد من الناس؟ على وزارة الصحة، التي لم تنف أو تؤكد، أن تكون واضحة وصريحة لأن غضب تجار الإبل لا يوازي قيمة إنسان. صحيفة «الاقتصادية» نسبت لمصدر في منظمة الصحة العالمية قوله باحتمال «نقل فيروس مرض (ميرس) الشرق الأوسط (كورونا) عبر حليب النوق أو الاتصال المباشر بالإبل».

فقد سبق للعالم أن شهد فترات خوف مماثلة؛ بارتباط الأوبئة مرة بالبقر، وثانية الخنازير، وثالثة الدجاج، والآن ربما الجمال. وقد اضطرت حكومات العالم إلى اتخاذ إجراءات احترازية صارمة، بما فيها منع القادمين من دول معينة لفترات مؤقتة، وحظر الاستيراد منها. وتمت إبادة الحيوانات المشتبه في أنها بمناطق موبوءة. هذا ما حدث للأبقار في فترة محاربة مرض جنون البقر، ولاحقا في وباء أنفلونزا الخنازير تم سلخ ملايين منها، وتكرر الأمر في مواجهة وباء أنفلونزا الطيور، وغيرها. الأمر لا يختلف كثيرا عن الإبل، إلا إذا كانت الجهات الطبية واثقة تماما بأنه لا علاقة لها أبدا بالطفرة الطارئة للفيروس، الذي أخاف العالم.

ومشكلة وزارة الصحة ليست تطويق الوباء بعلاجه والوقاية منه، بل أيضا ترميم العلاقة والسمعة والمصداقية، التي هي ضرورية في منع الانهيار النفسي عند الناس، وتوجيه الرأي للتعامل بشكل صحيح مع الوباء.

alrashed@asharqalawsat.com

http://www.aawsat.com/leader.asp?section=3&article=769268&issueno=12929#.U1YTzdymgjw

ته به لاس - جٌله - Cowpats-

In the old days the first you saw on arriving at a village was a heap of animal dung where hens scratched for food while the women of the village busy making flat cakes from the dung of the village’s cattle. Left to dry in the sun the animal dung was then burnt as a source of heat and cooking. When mixed with mud and straw the dung formed building material for their houses and animal sheds. The use of dung to make building material dates back to prehistory and many cultures traditionally used dung as a source of heat such as the tribes of Native Americans who roamed the prairies and it is still used in the villages of India (Photo above). Buffalo, cow and camel chips were the source of heat for countless generations. In dry countries dung was also a source of cash and all members of families that kept flocks and herds would collect dry animal droppings in sacks for sale in towns and cities.

 No doubt there are young people today who have no knowledge of this and would be disgusted at the thought of using dung to cook their food yet this was a vital source of heat and village women worked hard not only to feed their family but to produce the means of cooking the food.

Today we are all too dependent on gas, oil and electricity to give us heat but we are then relying on fossil fuels which are a limited resource. In addition burning gas and oil is polluting our planet and causing global changes in our weather and that all countries are looking to alternative energy sources such as hydroelectricity, wind and solar power, but the village women were always using a renewable energy source.

Today we are reliant on the oil industry for power and today’s villages have no dung heaps where the cockerel’s crow heralds the dawn of another day and the village women gather to make the fuel they need. Indeed there are no cockerels or hens to be seen in most of our villages and the outskirts of a village is marked by piles of plastic waste that litters the once productive land. I am sure that a time will come when people will look once more to the traditional source of power that was used in villages and will also turn again to agriculture. Then we may see villagers using gas and heat produced in their village from the dung of their flocks that is processed in a digester system to give methane. There are villages in the developing world where this system has already been developed. After all necessity is the mother of invention.

Women were, and still are, the power behind the villages’ existence. Salutations to those ladies.

Turkey is planning to build three more dams on the Tigris River

http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/three-dams-to-be-built-in-the-tigris-valley.htm

This article reveals that Turkey is planning to build three dams on the Tigris River as it flows through the Kurdish region on its way into Iraq. The article highlights the concerns of those living within the region that the environment will be destroyed, threatening the regions wildlife and the way of life for the Kurdish people living there. The dams will produce hydroelectric power but the lakes formed will attract the development of tourist centres, land development and related businesses at a cost to the environment and also threatens historical sites.

In this short article the author endeavours to highlight the threat that the proposed dams represent to the Kurdish region within Turkey. He is right to do so as the area has already suffered from the development of dams on the Euphrates now it seems attention is turning to the waters of the Tigris. Environmental damage, loss of wildlife, and the threat to historical sites are all raised in opposition to developments that threaten to destroy the Kurdish region of Turkey. Yet there is a major argument that should be raised against Turkey's endless development of dams along the Tigris and Euphrates, and one that receives little publicity, it is quite simply that Turkey's dams are reducing the flow of water into Iraq.

It is high time that the government in Baghdad, and the KRG, raised their concerns as to Turkey's actions in damming the rivers that are the lifeblood of Iraq. At the present time it is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that is responsible for Iraq's water supplies. Why? It is unusual to say the least that such an important sector is under the control of this ministry where there are no experts with the relevant knowledge in the water sector. We need an Office for Water, collaboration between the governments on Baghdad and Erbil, to form a united front to deal with this vital issue and raise international awareness of the threat Turkey's action pose to Iraq's population. We should raise the issue at the UN and, as Turkey still hopes to become part of the EU, the matter should be raised there too. We must make a stand and fight to maintain our rivers, without water there is no life.

At present it seems that we are content to purchase all the goods that Turkey sends across its borders and ignore the reduction in our rivers. If this state of affairs continues it will not be too long before we are forced to buy water from Turkey as well as our food!! 

Kurdistan Rain up to April 2014باران تاكو

بارانى امسال تاكو 1.4.2014 ل30% كمتره  لباران 
بارين سال بيشو

Iraq Poultry. دواجن العراق .كوشتي ده واجن

Kurdistan rain this season 40.7% less than last rainy season

It is well known that the Kurdistan  Regional Government (KRG) receives 17% of the total budget for Iraq as a whole and that the country’s budget is derived from oil revenues. The KRG uses the money it receives to pay the salaries of its staff, totaling around 1,000,000 individuals employed at all levels, but for the last two months, as a result of dispute over oil revenues and other dispute in the Iraqi Parliament, the KRG has not received any money from Baghdad so that it has not been able to pay its staff salaries and many families are now facing hardship.

As the families of the KRG staff suffer the consequences of this dispute the media in Kurdistan have pounced on the story and each newspaper and television station has expressed its view on the current situation. In the absence of an official state media the numerous press, radio and television studios that are supported by political parties, groups or indeed individuals have been airing their views, some of which have been very irresponsible in the current situation. A story that has unfortunately gained notice states that, in response to the failure of Baghdad to release funds to the KRG, water flowing into central Iraq from Kurdistan will be cut off!

When I heard of this threat to cut the water supply I immediately went to see the KRG’s official spokesman who assured me that there was no truth in this story and he was very angry that such a story existed. However the media were by then having a field day with the idea and naturally it has come to the attention of Baghdad. The result has been that two prominent MPs ( Mahmood El-Hassan & Alia Nsaif)  from the Prime Minister’s party have openly stated that if the water supply to the south is cut the army should be sent into Kurdistan to put a stop to it!.  Firstly I could not believe that the idea of depriving the south of water had been given any credence but secondly I was appalled to think that there were those in power in central government who would immediately send the army into Kurdistan. How I wish that those in government had been so ready to act when Iran stopped 23 rivers flowing in to Iraq or when Turkey reduced the waters of the Tigris and as they are now doing to the Euphrates.

On this website we endeavour to be transparent in everything we do and the tables below show the amount of rain recorded at 77 weather stations throughout the three governorates of Kurdistan. The results show that as of last week the amount of rain falling in Kurdistan this season has been 40% less than that recorded in the same time last year. Quite simply we are, like the rest of the Middle East region this year, facing the possibility of drought. We have had rain today but it has not been sufficient to alter the threat of drought and the strong possibility that this coming summer both the north and south will face a lack of water.

We should not reduce ourselves to being like our neighbours in Turkey and Iran where water is a commodity that can be used to threaten others.

1.  Number of Water Collection Stations in Kurdistan: 77 Stations.

2.  338  mm rain ppt this season up to ,4th, March 2014.

3.  570 mm rain ppt last season  (2012-2013).

4.  Differences between the two seasons  (-232.2 mm).

5.  Percentage differences ( – 40.7%). 

الجفاف بالشرق الأوسط قد يرفع أسعار الغذاء

http://maktoob.news.yahoo.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7-%D9%82%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B9-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%A1-081745506.html


كشف خبراء بالأمم المتحدة ومتخصصون في علم المناخ عن أن الجفاف الذي تشهده منطقة الشرق الأوسط يُنذر 

.بارتفاع أسعار الغذاء العالمية ونفاد المحاصيل المحلية

وأوضح محمد حسين المتخصص في الاقتصاد البيئي بمنظمة الأغذية والزراعة التابعة للأمم المتحدة (فاو) إن المنطقة شهدت في السنوات الخمس الأخيرة جفافا لم تعرف له مثيلا في المائة سنة الماضية.

وقد أصاب الجفاف نحو ثلثي الأرض الصالحة للزراعة في كل من سوريا ولبنان والأردن والأراضي الفلسطينية والعراق. كما أثّر الجفاف على محاصيل الحبوب في مناطق بسوريا وبدرجة أقل في العراق.

وتعدّ بعض الدول المتضررة من كبار مشتري الحبوب من الأسواق العالمية، ولهذا يُقدّر خبراء لجوء هذه الدول إلى الأسواق الخارجية لتلبية حاجتها بشكل متزايد بسبب نقص المحاصيل، وهو ما سيدفع بأسعار الغذاء العالمية إلى الارتفاع.

ويظهر مؤشر المطر أن المنطقة لم تشهد نقصا في مياه الأمطار على هذا النحو منذ عام 1970 على الأقل، وهذا حسب النتائج الأولية لدراسة فنية مشتركة عن إدارة مخاطر الجفاف قامت بها عدة وكالات تابعة للأمم المتحدة، منها 'الفاو'، وبرنامج التنمية، ومنظمة التربية والعلم والثقافة (يونسكو).

وأوضح خبراء في علم المناخ ومسؤولون أن السلطات المسؤولة عن المياه والزراعة إضافة إلى وكالات الأمم المتحدة المتخصصة بدأت في إعداد خطط للإعلان رسميا عن حالة جفاف في الشرق الأوسط تمتد حتى المغرب وجنوبا حتى اليمن.

استمرار الجفاف
وتشير مقتطفات من الدراسة التي ستنشر نتائجها قريبا إلى أن الجفاف في العراق سيستمر وستزيد شدته في الفترة من 2017 حتى 2026، مما يزيد من اعتماد واحد من أكبر مستوردي الحبوب في العالم على واردات الغذاء الأجنبية.

وقال محمد الخولي خبير الموارد الطبيعية في مؤسسة 'بلانينغ' الاستشارية الدولية المتخصصة في الدراسات الجيولوجية بمنطقة الشرق الأوسط وأفريقيا، إن الجفاف يزداد حدة في أجزاء من شرق البحر المتوسط والعراق، في حين يضرب بقوة سوريا مجددا بعد بضع موجات جفاف في العقود الأخيرة.

من جانبه، اعتبر وزير المياه والري الأردني حازم الناصر أن مستويات سقوط الأمطار هي الأسوأ منذ بدء عملية التسجيل قبل ستين عاما.

وأشار مسؤولون أردنيون إلى أنه حتى بعد العاصفة الثلجية القوية المفاجئة التي اجتاحت المنطقة في منتصف ديسمبر/كانون الأول الماضي، كانت سدود الأردن ممتلئة بنسبة 42% فقط، وهو ما يعني انخفاضا بنسبة 80% مقارنة بالعام الماضي.

وتعتبر الأردن واحدة من عشر دول تواجه أسوأ نقص للمياه في العالم

في المقابل، يقول الخبراء إن إسرائيل هي الدولة الوحيدة التي لا تواجه مشاكل مياه حادة في المنطقة، وذلك 
بفضل استثماراتها طويلة الأجل في محطات تحلية المياه وتقنياتها في إدارة الموارد المائية.

موتمر الطب البيطري العربي الثلاثون.Arab Vet. Conf

     للا شترك في الموتمر يمكنكم الاتصال بالدكتور شكري جرجس الجمعيه الطبيه

المصريه

ت:002023918460

ف:002023952826

evma52@hotmail.com

shoukry77@hotmail.com 

Iraq Has a Great Capacity to Diversify and Boost its Agricultural Products

Iraq Has a Great Capacity to Diversify and Boost its Agricultural Products and Exports of N, P, and S Fertilizers

M.S. Berigari*

Abstract

Iraq has a high capacity to diversify and boost its agricultural products as well as its exports of NPS fertilizers with its abundant phosphate, sulfur, and fossil fuel reserves to obtain surplus capital.  Thus, it can invest enough capital in developing the extensive arable land, water and human resources, and suitable climate and soils for multiple cropping systems annually. That should enhance its GDP (gross domestic product) and reduce drastically the currently high rate of unemployment.  By using up-to-date technology in intensive farming management it can increase its agricultural products of the essential grains, oils, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and forage crops as well as diverse animal products. Providing the essential nutrients in optimum amounts to various crops and optimizing other crop production parameters will ensure high crop yields and giving equal momentum to animal products will represent a giant step forward in achieving food security in Iraq as a strategic necessity.   Moreover, with proper soil drainage the number one soil problem (soil salinity) can be controlled in the soils of middle and southern Iraq.  It can, also, overcome water limitations for agriculture through efficient drip irrigation systems wherever applicable. Furthermore, to give a complete picture a list of inorganic fertilizers syntheses is included in this review.

Recent geological studies by the US Geological Survey and the Iraqi Geological Survey confirmed that after Morocco, Iraq has world’s largest phosphate rock reserves of 5.75 billion tons, in Akashat in the Anbar governorate (20).  And Iraq has large sulfur deposits in Mishraq in the Naynewa governorate. That is in addition to its abundant fossil fuel reserves in many parts of the country. Therefore, Iraq should plan for a large scale production of ammonia (N), phosphate (P), and sulfate(S) fertilizers to meet the increasing global and domestic demands for agriculture during the 21st century.  In fact it can become a major exporter of these fertilizers and their derivatives especially when the world demand for phosphate fertilizer has been and will be very high.

 Because phosphate is a major plant nutrient with distinct growth-limiting capacity in many soils where it is strongly bound to the soil solid phase and often becomes unavailable for plant root absorption but remains in soils. Therefore, global food production relies heavily on phosphate fertilization.   However, world phosphate reserves are limited and expected to be depleted before the end of the 21 st century (11). Consequently, world is facing great challenges to find solutions for this critical problem through intensive research on phosphate solubilization in soils to enhance its uptake by plant roots for higher crop yields and to cope with the increasing demand worldwide for food during 21 st century.

When the economic impacts of these fertilizers on agriculture of Iraq and their exports are added to that of petroleum exports, its gross domestic product (GDP) will increase significantly.  That should reduce the currently high unemployment rate remarkably, enhance the standard of living for its people, and consequently promote political stability as the absolute goal and necessity for the Iraqi society to have a brighter future.

The agriculture capacity of Iraq is very large considering:

 1) Extensive areas of arable land suitable for growth of all types of arid and semi- arid- zone crops with mechanization along proper soil drainage under irrigation,

 2) Adequate water resources for efficient drip irrigation systems wherever applicable to overcome the limited water supply from the two rivers (Tigris and Euphrates),

 3) A long growing season with excellent sunshine duration for growth of multiple crops annually,

 4) Long term availability of the macronutrients N, P, and K from fertilizers and possibly K, Ca, Mg, and S presence in the soil minerals, and

 5) Enough human resources.

Therefore,  a great potential exists for agriculture development in Iraq when taking all these factors together and adopting vigorous plant breeding, certified seeds ,  plant protection, soil fertilization, comprehensive extension program for up- to- date crop production managements, and adapting new plants. For example, soybean is an excellent source of protein and cooking oil, canola an excellent source of high quality cooking oil, and jojoba with its unique liquid wax for many industrial uses.  Jojoba wax resembles in many ways the sperm whale oil (liquid wax).  However, sperm whale (Physeter catodon) is an endangered species, its hunting is forbidden and jojoba oil (wax) is an excellent substitute for its oil (wax).  Further, cherry plants should be grown in the Kurdistan Region where the climate and soils are suitable for their growth instead of importing this fruit from neighboring countries.  Add to the list pecan plant that is expected to do well in the Kurdistan Region since it is very much like walnut, a good source of omega-3 fatty acid, and its nut is favorable in terms of its good taste and thinner shell.

 It is equally important to focus on animal production by a vigorous program for animal breeding, nutrition, and protection from diseases and pests. Moreover, there is a definite need for diversification including cattle, sheep, goat, poultry, fish, and honey bees. The country should introduce and adapt high quality animals in terms of high milk, meat, and other animal products.  For example, Holstein cow with its high milk production can grow in Kurdistan Region where the climate is more suitable.  In fact Kurdistan Region has the advantage of specializing in animal production because of the suitable climate, availability of good quality water resources, natural pastures, and other cultivated forage crops.

It is clear that Iraq can create an intensive and diverse agriculture to reach self- sufficiency within a ten year period in most essential grains, oil crops, legumes, vegetable crops, and fruit trees.  That is in addition to various forage crops for feeding a diverse group of livestock and poultry for their meat (white, and red), milk and other products, and including fish especially those with high omega-3 fatty acid content.  

The soils of Iraq in general are slightly to moderately weathered and are high in potassium supplying power as is the case with other soils of arid and semiarid regions (11), thus, the need for potassium fertilizer import is not great despite the fact that K⁺ is subject to fixation under wet and dry soil conditions by 2:1 type clays which are abundant in soils of Iraq (3).  NH₄⁺ ion has the same ionic size as K⁺ ion and is subject to fixation similarly under wet and dry soil conditions by 2:1 type clays (2).  Fixation of both NH₄⁺ and K⁺  results in equivalent reduction in soil cation- exchange capacity(CEC), a very important soil fertility property in retaining cations from leaching(2,3).   ln general soils of Iraq are, also, calcareous, hence, are very high in Ca and Mg contents as calcite (CaCO₃) and dolomite ( CaCO_3.MgCO₃) minerals.

 However, there are numerous gypsic soils (4) containing significant amounts of sparingly- water soluble gypsum (CaSO₄.2H₂O) which can release more available Ca²⁺ than either calcite or dolomite (1) but require special management due to sinkhole problems. Therefore, there will be sufficient quantities of macronutrients preferably in the order N≥K>Ca>Mg≥ P>S to meet the plant requirement (15) during the coming decades for agriculture in Iraq. However, soils are less likely to be deficient in Ca, Mg and S than the other three N, K, and P that are added as fertilizer elements to soils (15).   It is very important to apply these fertilizers to soils in balanced forms in terms of the ratio of N: P: K and to other essential plant nutrients for optimum crop yields keeping in mind the nutritional requirement of each crop or each family of crops(14  ) .

 Soil tests and diagnostic plant symptoms should help in revealing any deficiencies in the macronutrients and micronutrients. The micronutrient deficiencies can be corrected by their small scale incorporation with NPK fertilizer and direct addition to soils or more effectively through fertigation or as foliar spray applications when soil pH limits their availability (18).  Because soils in Iraq are dominantly calcareous i.e. are slightly alkaline,  soil pH ˃ 7 which may limits available micronutrients boron, H₃BO₃, iron, Fe²⁺, copper Cu²⁺, manganese Mn²⁺, and zinc Zn²⁺ but increases that of molybdenum,MoO₄^2- ( 14 ).   Plants are not likely to show deficiencies in chloride, Cl^-, from soils or irrigation water.  In fact there is no shortage of Cl^- but a problem of salinity which exists in most cultivated soils mainly as water soluble NaCl in the middle and southern Iraq where soils need adequate drainage

If soils contain enough solid phase reserves of the essential nutrients, plant roots normally exudates enough organic acids to modify the pH of the rhizosphere where microorganisms, plant roots, and soil components are actively involved in enhancing the availability of these micronutrients and other nutrients to crops with few exceptions (5). Moreover, there is a good possibility that root exudates could chelate various divalent cations, thus, make them more available.  Plant roots must exudate equivalent quantity of H⁺ ions  to that of nutrient cations taken up by plant roots and of course equivalent amounts of anions for uptake of nutrient anions such as NO₃^-, HPO₄^2-, and SO₄^2- to balance the overall electrical charge of soil solution. However, substituting H⁺ ions for basic cations causes a certain drop in the pH of the rhizosphere which enhances availability of the nutrient cations K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺, Mn²⁺, and Zn²⁺ whereas soil pH may have variable effects on availability of H₃BO₃, Cl^- , MoO₄^2-, PO₄^2-,3- , and SO₄^2- depending on the concentrations of the divalent cations and soil composition especially Fe and Al oxides (14). It is important to note that plants vary in relation to the level of each micronutrient required and, also, to the levels of their toxicity to various plants (14).

 There is ample evidence that the processes of plant development are controlled by internal signals that depend on adequate supply of mineral nutrients by soil to plant roots (5).   An earlier study (12) revealed that equilibration of some calcareous soil samples of Iraq with citric acid and orthophosphate (P) enhanced available (P) whereas both oxalic and tartaric acids rendered P relatively unavailable in the soil samples.  A more recent study (11) confirmed that phosphate availability and uptake by the young root system of oilseed- rape was enhanced by exudation of organic acid anion citrate, and also, facilitated rapid transport of the two anions citrate and phosphate in soil.

It is clear that Iraq and Kurdistan Region in particular can adopt a modern system for agricultural products to fully meet the nutritional requirement of its population.  That is by providing the essential nutrients in optimum amounts to various crops and optimizing other parameters for high crops yields as well as the optimum parameters for animal products.  That will represent a giant step forward in achieving food security as an essential strategy for the country.

1. Methane Gas, CH₄:  It is released abundantly from oil wells and upon its immediate contact with air it is burned wastefully. However, it can be harnessed and used as a clean source of energy and, also, to generate H₂ gas for the Haber-Bosch process.  That process yields ammonia which is a very important source of nitrogen fertilizers and played a major role in the green revolution of agriculture during 20 th century.

Therefore, chemical engineers can widen the scope of manufacturing plants for N, P, and S fertilizers to increase their export capacities for a diverse economy to take place in addition to heavy reliance on fuel oil exports. Alternatively, the Kurdistan Regional and the Federal Iraqi Governments could obtain economically sound contracts from industrial countries to built large scale factories at various economically suitable sites. The route to infrastructure is clear and should be used in addition to its merits in reducing the unemployment rate of Iraqi population which is a high priority and is currently too high for any form of political stability.

The following outline is presented as a short-cut guide and the details are left for the chemical engineers to implement.

2. Hydrogen Production:   The primary technology currently used for direct production of H₂ gas is steam reforming from hydrocarbons.  Many other alternative methods are available including electrolysis and thermolysis of water, H₂O(9).

2.1 Steam Reforming:   Fossil fuels are the main source of industrial H₂ which is generated from natural gas at approximately 80% efficiency or from other hydrocarbons to a varying degree of efficiency.  Most hydrogen production, however, is obtained by steam reforming of methane or natural gas (9):

a) At high temperatures (700- 1100 ᴼC = 973-1373 ᴼK) H₂O steam reacts with CH₄ to yield CO, H₂ and large quantity of heat in an exothermic reaction:               

CH_4(g) + H₂O_(g) ---------->  CO + 3H₂ + energy                           (∆H = -191.7 kJ/mol)

b) At a second stage, additional H₂ is produced by the lower temperature steam shift reaction at (130 ᴼC = 403 ᴼK) which is also, an exothermic reaction:

CO_(g) + H₂O_(g) --------->  CO_2(g)  + H_2(g)  + energy                                  (∆H= -40.4 kJ/mol)

3. Ammonia Synthesis by the Haber-Bosch Reaction: Fritz Haber, a German chemist, pioneered synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases in 1904, then obtained a patent for his work in 1908, and was awarded a Noble prize in 1918.    The H₂ gas produced from the above reactions can be chemically combined with nitrogen gas from the air through the Haber-Bosch process to produce ammonia which is the basic source of commercial N fertilizer (21) and the reaction is not as simple as it looks but the overall reaction occurs by a series of steps, with hydrazine,N₂H_4(g), produced at an intermediate stage (13):        

3H_2(g) + N_2(g) --------˃  N₂H_4(g) + H_2(g) ------> 2NH_3(g) + energy               (∆H = -92.22k J/mol) 

K_C = [NH₃]²/ [N₂] [H₂]³

At (300 ᴼC = 573 ᴼK), K_C has a value of 9.6, indicating that at this temperature, a considerable quantity of NH₃ forms from H₂ and N₂ reaction. Since the reaction is exothermic increasing temperature will shift the reaction to the left according to the Le Châtelier principle (13, 17).  Thus, increasing temperature will decrease K_C (14, 20)_.  However, at low temperatures the speed of the reaction is slow.  Therefore, for commercial production of NH₃ a catalyst consisting of a mixture of Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄ promoted with K₂O,, and Al₂O₃ is used to speed up the Haber-Bosch reaction at temperature between 400-600 ᴼC = 673-873 ᴼK while maintaining a pressure of 200 atmosphere or 2.03 x 10⁴ k Pascal (Pa) during the course of the reaction(8, 13).

 Moreover, for an efficient reaction to proceed the NH₃ and heat generated must be constantly removed from reaction system and stored.  And, also, increasing the pressure is the best choice to favor the forward reaction because there are 4 moles of reactants for every 2 moles of the product and at a constant temperature the volume is reduced to 2/4 or 1/2 according to Boyle’s Law. Thus, the forward reaction is favored based on the Le Châtelier principle (17) yet the entropy, extent of randomness as a universal law, decreases by converting 4moles of the reactant gases to two moles of the gas product.  Once anhydrous ammonia is produced it can be used to make other forms of nitrogen fertilizer such as urea, ammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate (8).  For example:

4. Urea Synthesis:  Ammonia is a gas at room temperature under one atmosphere = 101.3 kPascal of pressure and is easily compressed into a liquid that can be stored and transported.  In the anhydrous form it is applied directly to soils as fertilizer. When ammonia is reacted with CO₂ yielding urea, an organic compound, which is solid at room temperature and easier to transport and handle by unskilled workers and when applied to soils it slowly releases nitrogen to crops (14).

2NH_3(g) + CO_2(g) ---------->  NH_{2 +}  CO + NH_2(s) + H₂O_(l)                              

5. Ammonium Nitrate: This is highly soluble in water and disassociates into ammonium and nitrate ions (equation b) both of which are taken up from soil solution by plant roots. 

a)  NH_{3(g, l)} +  HNO_3(l) -----------˃  NH₄ NO_3(s)                                                                                                   (6)

b) NH₄NO_3(s) + H₂O_(l) -----------> NH₄⁺_(aq) + NO₃^-_(aq)                                     

6. Ammonium Sulfate:  Ammonia reaction with sulfuric acid yields this fertilizer which supplies both nitrogen and sulfur elements when it dissolves in water or soil solution:

a) 2NH_3(g)  +  H₂SO_4(l) ---------->  (NH₄ )₂SO_4(s)                                                                       (6)

b) (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) + H₂O_(l) -----------> 2NH₄⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq)

7. Ammonium Phosphate:  Reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid will produce this compound as a source of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients for plant growth:

a) 3 NH_3(g) + H₃PO_4(l) -----------˃ (NH4)₃PO_4(s)

b) ( NH₄)₃PO_4(s) + H₂O_{(l------------->}3NH₄⁺_(aq) + PO₄^3-_(aq)

8. Sulfur Dioxide Production:  Sulfur element from its ores or as a byproduct from oil refineries is melted, filtered off impurities, and then oxidized with oxygen in the exothermic reaction:

S_(s)  + O_{2(g) -----------}˃ SO_2(g)   +  energy                                                        (∆H = -300 kJ/mol)               

9. SO₂ Conversion to Sulfur Trioxide:  The SO₂ is reacted with O₂ in the presence of a catalyst, V₂O₅, to yield SO₃ in the exothermic reaction:

2SO_2(g) + O_2(g) ----------> 2SO_3(g)  + energy                                            (∆H = -100 kJ/mol)

10. Sulfuric Acid Formation:  The SO₃ is then absorbed into counter-current flow of H₂SO₄  to give more H₂SO₄ by the exothermic reaction:

SO_3(g) + H₂O_{(l) -----------}˃ H₂SO_4(l)  + energy                                                           (∆H = -200 kJ/mol)

11. Superphosphate Production:

a) The phosphate rock must be ground until at least 75% is ≤ 75 µ (micron) in diameter, and then perform its composition analysis. The proportions of various minerals present are amended to give the desired composition.

b) Phosphate ground rock, sulfuric acid and water are mixed and allowed to dry and react to yield superphosphate-a mixture of CaSO₄ and Ca(H₂PO₄)₂.H₂O (6):

Ca₃(PO₄)_2(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l)  + 2 H₂O  ----------˃ Ca(H₂PO₄). 2H₂O_(s) +   2CaSO_4(s) 

The underlined compounds represent more soluble superphosphate in soil solution (6) that supplies crops with P, S, and Ca nutrients.

c) Granulation is achieved by grinding the superphosphate cake to give particles less than 6 mm in diameter.

12. Triple Superphosphate Reaction:  The compound is a fertilizer produced from reaction of concentrated phosphoric acid with ground rock phosphate (10): 

4H₃PO_4(aq) + Ca₃(PO₄)_2(s) ----------> 3Ca (H₂PO₄)_2(aq)------------˃  3Ca²⁺_(aq) + 6H₂PO₄^1-_(aq)

The active ingredient of the product, monocalcium phosphate is identical to that of superphosphate except for the absence of calcium sulfate as the case when sulfuric acid is reacted with ground rock phosphate instead of phosphoric acid as reactant (8).

13. Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP):  This fertilizer is produced by the reaction of ammonia as a weak base with concentrated phosphoric acid.  The product is soluble in water yielding NH₄⁺ as a source of nitrogen nutrient and H₂PO₄^2- as a source of phosphorus nutrient (7).

NH_3(g) + H₃PO_4(aq) ---------˃ NH₄H₂PO_4(aq) ----------> NH₄⁺_(aq)  + H₂PO₄^-_(aq)                

 14. Diammonium Phosphate (DAP):  Using two moles of ammonia to react with one mole of concentrated phosphoric acid will produce this form of N and P fertilizer.  When it dissolves in water, it produces two NH₄⁺ ions for every one HPO₄^2- ion (7).

2NH_3(g) + H₃PO_{4(aq) ------------}> (NH₄)₂HPO_4(s)         

(NH₄)₂HPO_4(s)  + H₂O_(l) ----------˃ 2NH₄⁺_(aq)  + HPO₄^2-_(aq)

References

1.     Berigari, M.S. and F.M. Al-Ani.  1994.  Gypsum determination in soils by

conversion to water soluble sodium sulfate.  Soil Sci.Soc.Amer.J.58:  1624-1627.   

           

2.     Berigari, M.S.; F.M. Al-Ani; M.A.Umran and L.H.Ibrahim. 1987.  Ammonium

fixation in relation to characteristics of some Entisols and Aridisols of Iraq.  J.Agric.Water   Resour.Res., Baghdad, 6(3):65-81   .

3.     Berigari, M.S.; F.M. Al-Ani and M.A.Umran.  1985.  Potassium fixation by some calcareous soils of Iraq.  J.Agric.Water Resour.Res., Baghdad, 4(4): 89-107.

4.      Buringh, P.  1960.  Soils and Soil Conditions in Iraq (with Soil Maps).   Publ. Ministry of Agriculture, Baghdad.

5.     Dakora, F.D. and D.A.Phillips.  2002.  Root exudates as mediators of mineral    

acquisition in low nutrient environments.  Plant and Soil 245:  35-47.

                                          

6.     Hill, J.W.  1992.  Chemistry for Changing Times. 6^th ed. Macmillan Publishing    

Company, New York.  Maxwell Macmillan Canada, Toronto:  512-519.            

  7.  http://en.wikiedia.org/wiki/Diammonium_phosphate

  8.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/haber_process 

  9.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production.

  10.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/monocalcium_phosphate

  11. 3/vzj2012 0001"https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"11HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"/HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"3HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"/vzjHYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"2012HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001".HYPERLINK "https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/11/3/vzj2012.0001"0001

  12.  Karim, M.I.; M.S.Berigari: F.M.Al-Ani; and L.H.Ibrahim.  1989.  Effect of citric,

          oxalic, and tartaric acids on phosphate sorption by some calcareous soils of

          Iraq.  J. Agric.Water  Resour. Res., Baghdad, 8(1): 51-67.               

  13.  McMurry, J. and R.C.Fay.  2004.  Chemistry.  4 th ed.  Prentice Hall: 841-2.

  14.  Olson, R.A.; T.J.Army; J.J.Haway; and V.J.Kilmer (eds.).  1973.  Fertilizer Technology & Use. 

  15. Plaster, F.J.  1992.  Soil Science and Management.  2^nd ed.  Delmar Publ., Inc.  Soil  Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, Wisconsin

  16.  Reese, M. and Marquart, C.  2010.  Modeling the cost of production of            

        nitrogen fertilizers produced from wind energy:  Presented to the Minnesota        

       Corn Research and Promotion Council, Morris, MN. 

 17.  www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html         

 18.  www.echochem.com/t_micronutrients.html.

 19.  www.ihs.com/products/chemical/technology/pep/fertilizers-ammonium-   

         phosphate.aspx

 20.  www.indmin.com/Article/HYPERLINK "http://www.indmin.com/Article/2898028/"2898028HYPERLINK "http://www.indmin.com/Article/2898028/"/

21.  www.scifun.org

___________________________________________________________________

*Dr. Mohammed Sa’id Berigari, Senior Soil and Environmental Chemistry Scientist

5733 Nordeen Oak Court, Burke, Virginia 22015-2209 USA.  

للعراق قدرة عاليه على تنويع وزيادة الانتاج الزراعي وصادراته لاسمدة النتروجين والفسفور والكبريت                                                       

محمد سعيد بريكاري                                                                                                           

مستخلص                                                                                                                        

لدى العراق قدرة  فائقة  على زيادة الانتاج الزراعي كما ونوعا وكذلك صادراته من الاسمدة النتروجينية والفوسفورية والكبريتية باستغلال موارده الضخمة من النفط  (البترول)  والغاز الطبيعي  والفوسفات والكبريت وتحويلها الى راسمال فائض.   وبذلك يمكن استثمار مبالغ كافيه في تنمية الاراضي الزراعية الواسعة والمصادر  المائية والبشرية وزراعة عدة محاصيل سنويا على نفس القطعة من الارض لملائمة المناخ والتربة في اكثرمناطق العراق.   وهذا ما سيمكنه من مضاعفة الانتاج او الدخل الوطني الشامل والحد من معدل البطالة العالية حاليا الى ادنى مستوى.  وبتطبيق التكنولوجيا الحديثة في الزراعة الكثيفة يستطيع العراق زيادة الانتاج الزراعي لمحاصيل الحبوب , الزيوت, البقوليات , الخضروات , الفواكه , والعلف للحيوانات بانواعها المختلفة.  وبتوفير مقادير مثالية من عناصر تغذية النبات الضرورية والعوامل الاساسية الاخرى لنمو المحاصيل لاجل تحقيق اعلى انتاج,  وباتباع نفس المعايير في الانتاج الحيواني سيخطو العراق خطوة عملاقة باتجاه تحقيق الامن الغذائي كاستراجية ضرورية له.   وتعتبر ملوحة التربة في وسط وجنوب العراق اهم مشكلة تواجه الزراعة فيه.  ويمكن حل هذه المشكلة بتطبيق نظام صرف ملائم وكفوء.  اما بالنسبة للموارد المائية المحدودة الى حد ما فيمكن تفاديها باتباع انظمة الري الكفوءة وخاصة الري بالتنقيط .  ولاعطاء صورة كاملة البحث فقداضيفت اليه قائمة لصناعة مختلف الاسمدة غير العضوية.